Psychology
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The Psychology program at ISU encourages a spirit of active inquiry and critical thinking, life-long learning and development and social responsibility. The curriculum is based on the premise that any student of psychology, regardless of program goals, should be well-informed about basic principles of behavior. The undergraduate degree in psychology prepares students for graduate studies in psychology and related fields as well as employment in a variety of settings including health services, research, government and business.
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MALE FEMINISTS: OXYMORON OR THE NEXT STEP? AN EXPLORATION OF ATTITUDES ASSOCIATED WITH MALE FEMINISTSAlthough many studies have examined attitudes toward feminism and feminists, very few have been devoted to the study of attitudes toward male feminists. The existing body of literature has shown mixed results; with feminist men being rated more positively in some regards, and more negative in others. In the current study, Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 2004) is used as a framework for understanding factors associated with attitudes towards male feminists, male feminist identification, and gender-self-esteem. Attitudes associated with male feminists were examined in a sample of 466 male and female undergraduate students from Indiana State University. Participants were randomly assigned to one of six vignette conditions in which the sexual orientation and feminist orientation of a male character were manipulated, resulting in two non-feminist (heterosexual-homosexual), two feminist (heterosexual-homosexual), and two anti-feminist (heterosexual-homosexual) conditions. After reading the vignette, the participants were asked to rate the character on the Warmth and Competence scales, which correspond to traditional female and male traits, respectively. Participants then completed several self-report measures, including the Collective Self-Esteem Scale (assesses self-esteem related to gender), Liberal Feminist Attitudes and Ideology Scale (assesses liberal feminist attitudes), and Demographic questionnaire. Participants also completed a measure of social desirability and a measure assessing current sexual orientation. Contrary to hypotheses, results indicated that regardless of sexual orientation, feminist and non-feminist men received the highest Warmth and Competence ratings, while anti-feminists received the lowest. Additionally, gender self-esteem was found to be a sufficient predictor of attitudes toward feminism in women, but not in men. Consistent with other research, participants who were more politically liberal had more positive attitudes toward feminism than those who were more conservative. Finally, higher levels of religiosity were correlated with less positive attitudes toward feminism in women, but not in men. This research will contribute to knowledge and awareness of what factors predict feminist identification in men and what factors affect attitudes toward male feminists. This current research suggests that male feminists are perceived to possess both masculine and feminine traits, regardless of their sexual orientation. Additionally, the results suggest that SIT can be a useful framework to begin to understand both attitudes toward feminism and feminist identification. Furthermore, although there are some similarities in the predictors of attitudes toward feminism and feminist identification in women, there is much less consensus on these predictors in men. Finally, greater awareness regarding the impact of rigid gender roles and stigma against feminism can lead to more effective interventions to reduce gender role strain and potentially harmful compensatory strategies.
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“AHO! ALL MY RELATIONS:” NATIVE IDENTITY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEINGThis is the first known study to examine the relationship between Native identity and psychological well-being, which is defined by Ryff in positive psychology as existential strengths. It is also the first known study to investigate the relationship between Native identity and blood quantum through quantitative measures. Overall, 199 Natives from two American Indian Centers, three Indiana powwows, and online from Facebook participated by completing the Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-being, Phinney’s Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, and demographic information. The main hypothesis was to explore whether any of the psychological well-being subscales (positive relations, autonomy, mastery of environment, selfacceptance, personal growth, and/or life purpose) was associated with achieved Native identity status. Interestingly, only positive relations was significant in correlation with Native identity. A second hypothesis that diffused Native identity development would be associated with less Native ancestry, based on the negative, internalized socialization of blood quantum, was not supported; Native identity appears to be more complex with its multiple influences. However, the third hypothesis that achieved Native identity status was associated with more Native community involvement was supported. This is understandable in light of its high importance in Native values and identity formation. The discussion reviews the potential reasons for such results, as well as implications for promotion of more traditional community involvement in Native programs and services.
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POLYSUBSTANCE USE PATTERNS AND PSYCHOSOCIAL FUNCTIONING AMONG PARTICIPANTS IN THE ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC SCENEElectronic dance music (EDM) events are strongly associated with polydrug use, or the use of several substances at one time (Fernandez-Calderon et al., 2011), which has contributed to overall negative stereotypes of the EDM scene. Nitrous oxide use has been documented in EDM research, but mainly in qualitative designs (Hunt, Evans, Moloney, and Bailey, 2009). Qualitative research suggested participants pair nitrous oxide inhalation with use of ecstasy, or MDMA, for feeling an enhanced effect. This EDM study examined nitrous oxide use using a quantitative design and investigated how polysubstance use was related to positive and negative consequences of involvement in the EDM scene. Electronic music fans completed an Internet-based survey (N=147, 50% female) that assessed for amount of nitrous oxide use, amount of other drug use (i.e., lifetime use), gender, age, and degree of involvement in the EDM scene. Criterion variables included drug related consequences, positive and negative well-being, relationship satisfaction, and self-rated health. EDM involvement by itself was not significantly predictive of negative psychosocial functioning. However, EDM Involvement was predictive of increased positive affect. Nitrous oxide use and other substance use independently predicted psychosocial functioning. Nitrous oxide use predicted lower levels of positive affect and self-rated health. Moderation analyses testing the hypotheses that nitrous use moderated the effect of EDM involvement on negative outcomes were not supported. However, nitrous oxide use did appear to moderate the relationship between other drug use and positive well-being. For participants reporting lower nitrous oxide use, there was a positive relationship between other drug use and positive well- being, but for participants reporting higher nitrous oxide use, the relationship was no longer significant. Future research should assess a broader range of nitrous use frequencies as well as ask about drug use during the past month and year in addition to lifetime use.
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POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER, BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER, AND DISORDERS OF EXTREME STRESS, NOT OTHERWISE SPECIFIED; A VIGNETTE STUDY EXPLORING VA AND PRIVATE SECTOR CLINICIANS’ DIAGNOSTIC PERCEPTIONSDue to the role of trauma in the etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), borderline personality disorder (BPD), and disorders of extreme stress, not otherwise specified (DESNOS), and noted similar clinical pictures, it is important to explore differential diagnosis. There is evidence that gender influences the diagnosis of PTSD and BPD and of an “anchoring effect” in which disclosure of childhood trauma early versus late in a case vignette results in more diagnoses of PTSD or BPD, respectively. Additionally, as many veterans seek care within the private sector, it is important to understand possible diagnostic differences between VA and private sector clinicians. The present study explored gender bias, the anchoring effects of placement of childhood trauma in a case, and differences between VA and private sector clinicians in the diagnosis of PTSD and BPD. A national sample of 62 VA psychologists and 87 private sector psychologists read one of four versions of a case vignette and assigned a diagnosis, diagnostic ratings, and symptom ratings. The vignettes included PTSD and BPD symptoms, and a history of childhood trauma and combat-related trauma, and the versions differed with regard to patient gender and the placement of a childhood trauma within the case. Overall, the cases tended to be seen as PTSD, with PTSD being the frequent diagnosis, followed by BPD. Gender played a role in BPD diagnoses, with the female version of the case receiving significantly more BPD diagnoses and higher BPD ratings than the male version, as hypothesized. However, gender did not influence the diagnosis of PTSD. There was little support for an anchoring effect of placement of the childhood trauma in the case. VA clinicians assigned significantly lower PTSD ratings, as predicted, but also more diagnoses of BPD than private sector psychologists. Methodological limitations of the study and implications of the results are discussed.
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THE EFFECTS OF REFLECTIVE PROMPTS ON ATTENTION IN RESTORATIVE AND NON-RESTORATIVE ENVIRONMENTSAttention Restoration Theory (Kaplan, 1995) posits that the prolonged use of directed attention results in directed attention fatigue and that exposure to environments with restorative properties leads to increased attentional capacities. Despite a great deal of evidence illustrating this effect, there has been little research into the specific mechanisms accounting for this effect, and no research examining what is occurring in the mind during the restorative process. Most researchers have operated on the assumption that the relaxation of directed attention faculties accounts for the effect of attention restoration, with little evidence to completely support this assumption. However, conflicting evidence suggests that similar restorative effects for attention can be achieved by very different methods than attention restoration. Reflection has been conceptualized as a component or side-effect of the restorative process, but no research has examined how or if reflection adds to the effects of attention restoration. This study examined how reflective processes contribute to the restorative effect of attention restoration. In a randomized 2X3 design, 81 participants drawn from undergraduate university classes were given an attention-draining task, and then exposed to either restorative or non-restorative environments, and given either directed or generic prompts to reflect, or no prompt. Exposure to restorative environments was associated with greater attentional recovery than exposure to non-restorative enviornments. The greatest restoration appeared to occur in conditions with generic prompts to reflect, although this difference was not significant. Directed prompts were found to increase positive affect, and restorative conditions experienced significant decreases in negative affect and perceived arousal. Differential effects were found for the amount and type of reflection elicited in the conditions, but largely suggested that directed prompts elicited more internally-based feedback while generic prompts tended to elicit more externally-based reflection, and that the prompting reflection led to increases in reflection. These results suggest that reflection may play a greater role in the attention restoration process than previously believed.
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PTSD and Disclosure: Understanding the implications of personalityDespite decades of research outlining the onset, course, and treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), the question of why some, but not others, develop the disorder remains unanswered. One of the most widely accepted predictors of the disorder is the presence of negative posttraumatic cognitions. However, because the term “posttraumatic” implies a retrospective prediction, the clinical utility of this finding is relatively insignificant; it does not allow for the identification of those most at risk for developing PTSD prior to trauma exposure. A more promising area of research concerns the degree to which individuals feel comfortable discussing their thoughts and feelings surrounding their trauma experience; this process is otherwise known as disclosure. Specifically, individuals who are reluctant to share their experiences of trauma demonstrate greater symptom severity than those who willingly share. The purpose of the present study was to not only better understand the relationships between disclosure and PTSD, but also to explore how these relationships may be impacted by personality. A path analysis with one predictor variable (disclosure), one mediation variable (posttraumatic cognitions), and two outcomes variables (posttraumatic symptoms and posttraumatic growth) was hypothesized. Given the limited amount of literature related to PTSD and personality, specific predictions regarding this relationship were not made. The present study found evidence to suggest that, indeed, one reason individuals may develop and maintain high levels of anxiety following a trauma may be their attitudes toward sharing this experience with others. As reluctance to disclose a traumatic experience increased, individuals reported higher levels of PTSD symptoms and lower levels of posttraumatic growth (positive outcomes following a trauma). Further, these relationships appeared to be partially mediated by negative cognitions about the trauma, including thoughts about the self, thoughts about others, and self-blame. Although the direction of these relationships was limited in the present study by its correlational design, the results provide preliminary evidence to warrant future research.
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A New MMPI-2 Measure Of Psychopathy: An Empirical ApproachThe purpose of the current study was to develop a new scale on the MMPI-2 to identify individuals with global psychopathy, as measured by the PCL-R. The study consisted of four smaller studies, including 1) derivation of the scale 2) cross-validation 3) external validation, 4) factor analysis. The derivation sample consisted of male prison inmates (N = 170) and a second sample of male prison inmates (N = 126) was utilized for cross-validation. A third sample of male and female college students (N = 308) was utilized for the purpose of correlating the developed scale with existing measures of personality disorders and an emotion recognition task. Using empirical keying methods, 32 items were identified for the resulting scale, Psychopathic Attitudes and Behaviors (PAB). Results of study 1 demonstrated PAB to have adequate internal consistency and the strongest correlation to PCL-R total scores when compared to extant MMPI-2 scales. Further, PAB was found to adequately predict group membership. These results were replicated in Study 2 and PAB appeared to successfully cross-validate in an alternative sample. Results of Study 3 examining the relationship between PAB elevations and errors on an emotion recognition task indicated no significant relationship between scores on PAB and deficits in the ability to recognize facial expressions of emotions. However, results examining the relationship between mean scores for those above the cutoff and those below the cutoff on PAB and the PDQ-4 narcissistic, antisocial, and conduct disorder scales were significant, providing some support for external validation. Finally, the exploratory factor analysis in Study 4 yielded a three-factor solution, which did not parallel the PCL-R factors. Overall, the study was successful in developing a more efficient MMPI-2 scale to measure psychopathic traits, as it outperformed the theoretically-related scales already existing on the MMPI-2. However, the item content was not representative of the full range of interpersonal and affective traits associated with primary psychopathy and the scale was more significantly related to the social deviance factor of the PCL-R, which suggests PAB may be more representative of the secondary variant of psychopathy.
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EFFECTS OF THE INTERACTION OF RELIGION AND INTERNALIZED HOMONEGATIVITY ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEINGThe goal of the current research is to contribute to knowledge regarding the ways in which religion impacts the mental health of lesbian women and gay men. A body of existing literature shows support for religion as a means of bolstering psychological wellbeing. However, there is a dearth of research on the unique ways in which religious sexual minority individuals may be differentially affected by religion, considering the presence of heterosexist beliefs and norms in many mainline Western religions. The current research explores the effects of the interaction between religion and internalized homonegativity on psychological well-being. Possible relationships between religious coping, internalized homonegativity, and mental health outcomes are examined. The final sample consisted of 57 lesbian and gay individuals with 44 religious individuals and 13 agnostic individuals. Participants completed the Brief Symptom Inventory-18, the Brief RCOPE Long Form, and depending on self-identified gender, either the Lesbian Internalized Homophobia Scale (women) or the Internalized Homophobia Scale (men). Participants also completed a demographic scale, which included measures of religiosity and spirituality. Consistent with research demonstrating the protective role of religion, the results demonstrated that better psychological health was associated with religiosity and religious involvement among a sample of only religious participants, as well as a sample of religious and agnostic participants combined. The hypothesized role of internalized homonegativity as a mediator between religious coping and psychological well-being could not be explored due to lack of association between religious coping and internalized homonegativity. However, higher levels of internalized homonegativity were associated with worse psychological health among only religious participants as well as religious and agnostic participants combined. More frequent use of positive religious coping was associated with better psychological health among religious and agnostic participants combined, but not among only religious participants. This research will contribute to the knowledge of how the mental health of sexual minority individuals is affected by religion. The results of the current research suggest that lesbian and gay individuals may benefit from the protective effects of religion on mental health, and that social stressors may have a deleterious effect on psychological well-being among lesbian and gay religious and agnostic individuals. Greater understanding of the interactions between religion, social stress, and psychological outcomes may assist clinicians in providing more effective treatment to assist religious sexual minority clients in navigating conflicts between potentially competing intersecting identities.
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The Effect of Intentionally Engaging Attention when Viewing Restorative Environments: Exploring Attention Restoration TheoryAlthough research exploring Attention Restoration Theory has been extensive, certain procedures for its study seem to be taken as implicit, but require investigation for a deeper understanding and application of both the theory and its underlying processes. This study aimed to answer the questions: “What is the result of engaging directed attention when viewing otherwise restorative environments?” and “Does this intentional engagement have any effect on already fatiguing non-restorative environments?” Participants were asked to complete a task designed to fatigue their directed attentional capacity and then view images of restorative or non-restorative environments, wherein they either were asked to direct their attention to these environments, or were allowed to view them freely. Those viewing restorative environments but asked to direct their attention had significantly lower and even inhibited recovery from Directed Attention Fatigue than participants viewing these environments freely. Additional analyses explored this effect between environments and on a number of subjective measures. Discussion focuses on the role of tasks in the restorative process and the seemingly inherent neutrality or facility of different environments in regards to restoration.
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MODERATING EFFECTS OF RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEXUAL SELF-DISCREPANCIES AND GUILT AND ANXIETYThe current study examined the moderating effect of religious orientation on the relationship between sexual self-discrepancies and guilt. There is some evidence of a positive correlation between sex-guilt and higher levels of religiosity. In this study it was proposed that sex-guilt in religious individuals is partially driven by discrepancies between actual sexual behaviors and how the individual thinks that they ought or ideally should behave. In order to test this idea a survey was administered to 151 undergraduate students to assess religious orientation, actual, ought, and ideal sexual behaviors, and sex guilt. Gender differences were found in reporting intrinsic religiosity, sexual behavior, and sexual attitudes. Men reported more favorable attitudes toward sexual behavior, also, men reported more sexual behaviors than women, no significant difference was found between women and men in the intrinsic religiosity scores, and women reported higher levels of sex anxiety and sex guilt than men. Moderate negative correlations were found between intrinsic religious orientation and penile-vaginal sex for women; and mutual manual stimulation, and attitudes towards sexual permissiveness for men. Intrinsic religious orientation moderated the following relationships: ideal total sexual behavior discrepancy and sex anxiety for men and women combined; ideal manual stimulation discrepancy and sex guilt for men and women combined; ideal total sexual behavior discrepancy and sex guilt in men; and ought masturbation discrepancy and sex guilt in women. That is, those who reported higher levels of intrinsic religious orientation also report higher levels of anxiety and guilt, associated with discrepancies related to sexual behavior. This study contributes to the awareness of how religiosity can affect sex guilt. Based on the results of this study, the bogus pipeline methodology had limited utility when examining the relationships between intrinsic religiosity, sex anxiety, and sex guilt.
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The Nature of God: Perceptions of God with Exposure to Nature and Natural EventsResearch studies have shown that the sense of awe evoked by natural settings may be associated with transcendental thinking about God. Similarly, other researchers have suggested that people attribute events to God when they cannot develop a sufficient naturalistic explanation for a phenomenon. People appear to prefer attributing events to a benevolent God but will modify their beliefs to assume that God is punitive if event outcomes do not appear to favor their well-being or religious attributions do not accommodate a situation. In the current study, the goal was to evaluate how exposure to photographs of different environments influenced beliefs in a loving or punitive God. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups and shown either photographs of unordered nature, photographs of ordered nature showing seasonal progression, photographs depicting nature as a destructive force (e.g., storms, tornadoes, and floods), or human-made environment setting photographs. After viewing the photographs, participants reported their confidence in the existence of a higher power and how strongly they viewed him as punitive or loving. Participants also completed measures assessing their needs for structure and closure. It was hypothesized that belief in God would be strongest among participants in the three nature groups but most especially in the seasonally-organized and disaster groups. In addition, the researcher hypothesized that the strongest belief in a loving or punitive God would be demonstrated by participants in the destructive nature group. The results showed no evidence that different types of environment alone influence belief in God’s existence or his loving or punitive qualities, but reactions of awe/wonder, fear/sense of threat, and perceived lack of control that are elicited by environment may increase God belief and punitive God concept.
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THE EFFECTS OF PROCESSING FLUENCY ON RESTORATIVE ENVIRONMENTSAttention Restoration Theory (ART) maintains that directed attention, a type of attention that requires effort, is a resource that is susceptible to fatigue after prolonged use. This directed attention fatigue, commonly known as mental fatigue, is a factor linked to performance and safety decline in the workplace. Many studies have found that contact with nature promotes restoration from directed attention fatigue; however, there is little research on how nature has this effect. The aim of the present study was to explore whether natural environments have restorative potential given their higher degree of processing fluency. College students (N=78) were mentally fatigued by performing a sustained attention task. Then they viewed a natural photograph or urban photograph presented in various degrees of fluency (manipulated via visual clarity) and performed the sustained attention task again. Mood ratings were also examined. In line with ART, participants who viewed the natural environment photograph showed a larger improvement in the sustained attention task compared to those who saw the urban environment photograph; however, this was not influenced by fluency levels. Mood ratings were also not influenced by the type of environment or fluency levels. The research promotes the exploration of specific mechanisms underlying restorative environments which in turn would provide landscape designers, spatial planners, and employers a basis for green designs and interventions.
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THE EFFECTS OF TIMING AND VISUAL CUES ON SOCIAL ANXIETY IN ONLINE COMMUNICATIONThe development of internet-based mediums for communication has created new ways to study social interactions. Previous research has shown that individuals high in social anxiety report more comfort in online social interactions than in face-to-face interactions. Similarly, individuals have been found to self-disclose more online than in face-to-face interactions, regardless of anxiety level. Computer-mediated communication also allows for more controlled interactions because of the potential to remove visual, auditory, and time-based factors that are inherent to most other communication mediums. This study explored the influence of visual and timing aspects of computer-mediated communication on self-reported levels of anxiety. The study used an undergraduate sample of 148 participants and explored how experiences of anxiety varied by whether participants believed that a webcam and/or time limit was present in a 10-minute mock computer-mediated communication. Results indicated that participants reported reduced levels of anxiety in anticipation of a face-to-face interaction after the mock online interaction. Including a webcam in the interaction led to a nearly-statistically significant increase in reported confidence. Both the inclusion/exclusion of a webcam and timer had main effects on responses during the interaction. The implications for understanding the effectiveness and use of online interactions as a treatment for social anxiety are discussed.
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SCREENING FOR SOCIAL EMOTIONAL DIFFICULTIES AMONG ELEMENTARY STUDENTS: A COMPARISON OF SCREENING METHODS AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONSThe purpose of the proposed study was twofold. First, three methods used for screening students for emotional and behavioral difficulties were compared. These three methods consisted of two methods currently in use in the schools and one systematic universal screening process utilizing a standardized rating scale that was introduced for this research. Second, teacher perceptions about and acceptability of the systematic universal screening process were explored. The sample included 13 teachers from a rural school district in the Midwest who assessed the students in their respective classrooms in addition to completing surveys and participating in focus group interviews at the end of the screening data collection process. The Behavioral Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (BASC-2) Behavioral and Emotional Screening System was completed by teachers regarding the students in their classroom. Students were randomly selected to be further assessed by their teachers using the BASC-2. The BASC-2 rating scales provided information identifying specific types of concerns. Reading achievement data, office discipline referrals, and teacher referral information were collected through record review. The results of this study provide a better understanding of how schools may effectively and accurately screen for students who experience emotional and behavioral problems. Additionally, this study provides information about classroom teachers’ perceptions of using a standardized rating scale for screening purposes that will inform researchers and school practice.
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FACTORS PREDICTING INTERNALIZING AND EXTERNALIZING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IN A SAMPLE OF INNER CITY MINORITY WOMENWomen of minority backgrounds, particularly those of lower socioeconomic status, are vulnerable to a whole host of social and health related problems such as increased rates of depression, incarceration, sexual assault, and premature death. With such vulnerabilities, these women are at increased risk for developing internalizing disorders (i.e., depression and anxiety) and externalizing disorders (i.e., substance abuse, antisocial personality disorder), compared to women of higher socioeconomic status. The purpose of the present research was to examine factors that are predictive of the development of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in minority women in an effort to construct a comprehensive model of psychopathology in minority women. The present study used archival data that were collected in four samples of inner city women in New York City. A correlational design, using both logistic regression and multiple regression, was used to examine predictors of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. It was predicted that childhood or adolescence internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, trauma and abuse, and family history of psychiatric problems and substance abuse would predict the presence of these disorders in adulthood. It was also predicted that ethnicity and a history of treatment for these disorders in childhood or adolescence would moderate the relationship between the predictors and current diagnosis. Results of this study partly supported the hypotheses. Current internalizing disorder was predicted by the presence of childhood or adolescent internalizing disorder, trauma and physical/emotional abuse. Current externalizing disorder was predicted by early onset internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, trauma, and family history of psychiatric problems and substance abuse. Ethnicity and childhood or adolescent treatment were not significant predictors or moderators. Measurement issues and other limitations of the data are discussed. Results of this study will help increase knowledge of the factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology in this under-researched group.
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EVALUATING THE ACADEMIC PREPARATION OF ADDICTION COUNSELORS IN INDIANA FOR PROFESSIONAL PRACTICECurrently, addiction counseling services are provided by individuals who do not possess degrees in addictions counseling or have had courses in addictions-related content in their academic programs of study. There is recognition that addictions counseling is nonexistent or inconsistent in academic curriculum in higher education. Other allied graduate counseling programs of clinical mental health, social work, and marriage and family therapy have established curricula. The current lack of addiction studies education brings questions of competency of the current and future providers of addictions counseling. As a result, inquiry is needed to examine the current addictions counseling workforce, and their academic preparation to determine what if any courses in addictions counseling were offered in their programs of study. Further, what are the current workforce duties and experiences of addictions counselors? With regard to those duties, what could be learned to incorporate into an academic program and curriculum content? The academic preparation of addiction counselors using a qualitative study was investigated. Participants were currently practicing addictions counselors at Indiana treatment programs. Each one possessed a master‘s degree, and all were grandfathered into an addictions counseling license in Indiana. The participants of this study were interviewed about academic preparation and what correlation the academic preparation had in relevance to current workforce duties and services. Participants also completed a survey related to graduate-level courses and course descriptions in addictions counseling. They endorsed the courses and descriptions with a Likert scale on degree of relevance or nonrelevance related to their workforce duties in addictions counseling. The participants provided perspectives on their self-awareness as addictions counselors and workforce issues. Their contributions provided data that coalesced into themes to be considered for academic and workforce issues to enhance addictions studies and services.
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THE FACIT-SP: FACTOR STRUCTURE IN A CANCER TREATMENT POPULATIONSpirituality has been identified as a unique construct with relationships to quality of life and adjustment to severe illness. Differentiating the characteristics of spirituality from religiousness and identifying the dimensions within spirituality will improve understanding of the relationships with health related outcomes and facilitate targeted interventions. The Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Spiritual Well-being Scale (FACIT-Sp) is a widely used measure of religiousness and spirituality among cancer patients. Original factor analysis of the FACIT-Sp supported two factors: Faith and Meaning/Peace. A three-factor solution has been identified that divides the Meaning and Peace factor into cognitive and affective components. This study further explored the factor structure for the FACIT-Sp in a group of patients with a cancer diagnosis and receiving active treatment (N = 240). CFA analysis showed the Fit indices indicated the 3-factor model was a good-fit [(χ2 = 101.49 (df = 49), NFI = .95, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .07] and was an improvement over the 2-factor model that approached but did not obtain a good-fit [χ2 = 160.72 (df = 51), NFI = .91, CFI = .92, RMSEA = .10] with the data. SEM using the 3-factor model demonstrated the Meaning and Peace factors had significant paths with depression on BSI (β = -.44, p ≤ .01 and -.37, p ≤ .01 respectively). SEM using the 3-factor model and QoL measures demonstrated predictive ability after controlling for depression: Meaning paths with Socfmwb and Emotwb (β = .46, p ≤ .01 and -.36, p ≤ .05 respectively); Peace paths with Physwb, Emotwb, and Funcwb (β = .30, p ≤ .05; .43, p ≤ .001, .38 ≤ .001) with QoL measures on the FACT G. The relationships of the separate factors were obscured when combined in the 2-factor model demonstrating significant paths with all four QoL scales and all in the positive direction. The combined Meaning/Peace factor (β = .19, p ≤ .05) substantially altered the opposing relationship between Meaning and Peace with Emotwb. The separated Meaning and Peace scales did not demonstrate convergent and divergent validity with the similarly aligned scales, Will-to-Meaning scale from the LAP-R and the Peace scale from the Ironson and Woods Religiosity Index. The Meaning and Peace scales also demonstrated predictive value in relationship with negative and positive religious coping as measured by the R-COPE. These results provide support for the improved fit and added utility of a 3-factor model for the FACIT-Sp.
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Moderating Effects of Religious Orientation on the Relationship Between Sexual Self-Discrepancies and Guilt and AnxietyThe current study examined the moderating effect of religious orientation on the relationship between sexual self-discrepancies and guilt. There is some evidence of a positive correlation between sex-guilt and higher levels of religiosity. In this study it was proposed that sex-guilt in religious individuals is partially driven by discrepancies between actual sexual behaviors and how the individual thinks that they ought or ideally should behave. In order to test this idea a survey was administered to 151 undergraduate students to assess religious orientation, actual, ought, and ideal sexual behaviors, and sex guilt. Gender differences were found in reporting intrinsic religiosity, sexual behavior, and sexual attitudes. Men reported more favorable attitudes toward sexual behavior, also, men reported more sexual behaviors than women, no significant difference was found between women and men in the intrinsic religiosity scores, and women reported higher levels of sex anxiety and sex guilt than men. Moderate negative correlations were found between intrinsic religious orientation and penile-vaginal sex for women; and mutual manual stimulation, and attitudes towards sexual permissiveness for men. Intrinsic religious orientation moderated the following relationships: ideal total sexual behavior discrepancy and sex anxiety for men and women combined; ideal manual stimulation discrepancy and sex guilt for men and women combined; ideal total sexual behavior discrepancy and sex guilt in men; and ought masturbation discrepancy and sex guilt in women. That is, those who reported higher levels of intrinsic religious orientation also report higher levels of anxiety and guilt, associated with discrepancies related to sexual behavior. This study contributes to the awareness of how religiosity can affect sex guilt. Based on the results of this study, the bogus pipeline methodology had limited utility when examining the relationships between intrinsic religiosity, sex anxiety, and sex guilt.
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The Effect of Intentionally Engaging Attention when Viewing Restorative Environments: Exploring Attention Restoration TheoryAlthough research exploring Attention Restoration Theory has been extensive, certain procedures for its study seem to be taken as implicit, but require investigation for a deeper understanding and application of both the theory and its underlying processes. This study aimed to answer the questions: “What is the result of engaging directed attention when viewing otherwise restorative environments?” and “Does this intentional engagement have any effect on already fatiguing non-restorative environments?” Participants were asked to complete a task designed to fatigue their directed attentional capacity and then view images of restorative or non-restorative environments, wherein they either were asked to direct their attention to these environments, or were allowed to view them freely. Those viewing restorative environments but asked to direct their attention had significantly lower and even inhibited recovery from Directed Attention Fatigue than participants viewing these environments freely. Additional analyses explored this effect between environments and on a number of subjective measures. Discussion focuses on the role of tasks in the restorative process and the seemingly inherent neutrality or facility of different environments in regards to restoration.
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The effect of periodicity on temporal attentionCurrently, there is a gap in the literature in terms of the relationship between implicit learning and temporal attention. This study set out to discover whether implicit learning could influence the modulation of temporal attention. Employing the Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) task, 42 volunteers from Indiana State University participated in the 45-minute experiment. The RSVP stream consisted of 11 uppercase letters, with a stimulus duration of 17ms and a presentation rate of 10Hz. Participants were asked to identify one blue target among 10 white distractors for 10 practice trials and 462 experimental trials. There were three independent variables. The first was Position were a target could appear in one of 5 positions in the RSVP stimulus stream. Three of these positions were considered “High-Frequency” and two of the positions were “Low-Frequency. The “Low-Frequency” positions occurred at a 1/3 of the frequency of the “High-Frequency positions”. The second variable was Jitter, were targets were manipulated so that they could appear 33 ms before, exactly at (0 ms), or 33 ms after the underlying 100 ms base periodicity. Periodicity was the third independent variable where participants were divided into two groups, Periodic or Non-Periodic. Those in the Periodic condition had distractors appear at regular 100ms intervals. Those in the Non-Periodic condition had distractors appear in an unpredictable pattern that averaged every 100 ms.. One outcome of the study was the replication of Position effects from a previous study, which supports the attentional awakening phenomenon for both conditions. A more significant outcome of the study was the provision of empirical support for the idea that periodicity is a iv factor that may influence implicit learning of temporal patterns. Results showed that target identification increased with the frequency of target occurrence at specific RSVP positions in the Periodic condition only. It seems periodicity aided participants in implicitly learning where targets were more likely to appear, thereby improving cognitive performance.